- The Origin of the Income Tax / Interessanter Artikel - - Elli -, 09.09.2004, 12:27
The Origin of the Income Tax / Interessanter Artikel
--><font face="Verdana" size="2">
<h3><span id="lblStoryTitle"><font size="1">http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?control=1597</font></span></h3>
<h3><span><font size="5">The Origin of the Income Tax</font></span></h3>
<h4 class="MsoBodyText">by Adam Young</h4>
<p class="MsoBodyText"><font face="Verdana">[Posted September 7, 2004]</font>
<p class="MsoBodyText"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica"><img alt src="http://www.mises.org/images3/taxtomes.gif" align="right" border="0" width="248" height="215">"The
freedoms won by Americans in 1776 were lost in the revolution of 1913,"
wrote Frank Chodorov.
Indeed, a man's home used to be his castle. The income tax, however, gave
the government the keys to every door and the sole right to change the locks.</font>
<p class="MsoBodyText"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">Today the American people
are no longer the master and the government has ceased to be the servant. How
could this be? The Revolution fought in the name of the inherent natural rights
to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness promised to enthrone the gains of
individualism. Instead, federal taxation bribes the States and individuals to
serve the interests of ever-greater submission to the centralized will. </font>
<p class="MsoBodyText"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">How did tax slavery come
to the land of the free?</font>
<p class="MsoBodyText"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica"><strong>1812</strong></font>
<p class="MsoBodyText"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">The first proposal to
impose an income tax on America occurred during the War of 1812. After two years
of war, the federal government had accumulated a then-staggering $100 million of
debt. To fund the war against Britain, the government doubled the rates of its
major source of revenue, customs duties on imports, which obstructed trade and
ended up yielding less revenue than the previous lower rates. At the height of
the war, excise taxes were imposed on goods and commodities, and housing, slaves
and land were taxed. After the war ended in 1816, these taxes were repealed and
instead a high tariff was passed to retire the accumulated war debt. Thankfully,
the notion of an income tax was defeated.</font>
<p class="MsoBodyText"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">However, the malevolent
spirit of the income tax reappeared as a measure to fund the Union armies in the
war to prevent the secession of the Confederacy. The war was expensive, costing
on average $1,750,000 a day.</font><a id="_ftnref1" title href="http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?control=1597#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">[1]</font></span></a>
<font face="Verdana, Helvetica">Struggling to meet this expenditure, the
Republican Congress borrowed heavily, doubled tariff rates (the Morrill Tariff
initially provoked the Deep South to secede), sold off public lands, imposed a
maze of licensing fees, increased old excise tax rates and created new excise
taxes. But none of this was enough.</font>
<p class="MsoBodyText"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica"><strong>1861</strong></font>
<p class="MsoBodyText"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">In July 1861, the
Congress passed a 3% tax on all net income above $600 a year (about $10,000
today). However, no revenue was ever raised because a second tax passed before
the first was due (on June 30, 1862). The war's demand on resources made the
earlier tax ineffective, and the sale of bonds could not keep up with the
expenditures of the administration and the armies. In March, the Congress passed
an income tax of 3% on annual incomes of $600 to $10,000 and 5% on incomes from
$10,000 to $50,000 and threw in a small inheritance tax too. Lincoln signed the
bill on July 1, 1862 to take effect a month later. The Union debt then stood at
$505 million.</font><a id="_ftnref2" title href="http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?control=1597#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">[2]</font></span></a>
<font face="Verdana, Helvetica">This tax also included the first appearance of
withholding and was applied to federal salaries and on interest and dividends.</font><a id="_ftnref3" title href="http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?control=1597#_ftn3" name="_ftnref3"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">[3]</font></span></a>
<p class="MsoBodyText"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">In 1863, Congress then
passed a special 5% tax on incomes above $600 to pay for an army recruitment
program that would pay men $2 per recruit and pay recruit's their first month's
pay in advance.</font><a id="_ftnref4" title href="http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?control=1597#_ftn4" name="_ftnref4"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">[4]</font></span></a>
<p class="MsoBodyText"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">In mid-1864, the rates
were raised again. The 3% tax on incomes above $600 was increased to 5%, a new
7.5% rate was introduced on incomes over $5,000, and the old rate of 5% on
incomes above $10,000 was raised to 10%. The tax on interest and dividends was
also raised from 3% to 5%.</font>
<p class="MsoBodyText"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">And for the first time,
with the changes, Americans now had to swear to the veracity of their tax
returns, and government assessors could now challenge a return. The penalty for
not filing a tax return was likewise doubled to 10%.</font><a id="_ftnref5" title href="http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?control=1597#_ftn5" name="_ftnref5"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">[5]</font></span></a>
<p class="MsoBodyText"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">At first, the income tax
raised comparatively little revenue in relation to the war's demand for it.
Harvesting only $2.7 million in 1862-1863, by the next year, the tax pulled in
$20.2 million. And believing that many large-income earners were eluding the
taxman, Congress raised the rate on incomes over $5,000 to 10% and gave the
assessors the power to estimate income and increased the penalties for
noncompliance, from fines of 25% to double that for filing fraudulent returns.
By 1866, 30% of federal revenues derived from the income tax totaling $73
million, and derived primarily from just three states, New York, Pennsylvania
and Massachusetts.</font>
<p class="MsoBodyText"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">In a move to increase
compliance and the veracity of returns, the government even made tax returns
available to the press. This practice was outlawed in 1870.</font><a id="_ftnref6" title href="http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?control=1597#_ftn6" name="_ftnref6"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">[6]</font></span></a>
<p class="MsoBodyText"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">The Confederacy also
experimented with a progressive income tax, eventually imposing a tax in kind
that further destroyed the already ruptured and blockaded economy of the South.</font><a id="_ftnref7" title href="http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?control=1597#_ftn7" name="_ftnref7"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">[7]</font></span></a>
<p class="MsoBodyText"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica"><strong>1865</strong></font>
<p class="MsoBodyText"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">After the war ended, the
income tax continued on to pay the government's gigantic debt, but resistance
was building. In 1867, progressing rates were replaced with a flat tax of 5% on
all incomes above $1000 a year. However, the penalty for failure to file was
raised to 50% and the payment date was moved from June 30 to April 30.</font><a id="_ftnref8" title href="http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?control=1597#_ftn8" name="_ftnref8"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">[8]</font></span></a>
<p class="MsoBodyText"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">This income tax expired
in 1870 and was replaced with a 2.5% tax on incomes above $2,000. Finally, when
that law expired in 1872, the United States was again without an income tax.</font>
<p class="MsoBodyText"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">In the post-war years, a
booming economy produced tariff surpluses for decades, but this didn't deter
many attempts to reintroduce an income tax, with members of Congress introducing
sixty-eight bills to do so between 1874 and 1894.</font>
<p class="MsoBodyText"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica"><strong>1894</strong></font>
<p class="MsoBodyText"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">Amid the panic of 1893,
an amendment was passed establishing a 2% tax on all incomes above $4,000 a year
(about $50,000 today), but exempted the salaries of state and local officials,
federal judges, and the president.</font>
<p class="MsoBodyText">
<p class="MsoBodyText"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">Democratic Senator David
Hill of New York lamented,"It may be impracticable that our distinctively
American experiment of individual freedom should go on."</font><a id="_ftnref9" title href="http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?control=1597#_ftn9" name="_ftnref9"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">[9]</font></span></a>
<p class="MsoBodyText"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">President Cleveland
opposed the income tax, but let it become law without his signature, believing
it to be unconstitutional. In 1895, the Supreme Court ruled 5-4 against the
income tax, saying that its provisions amounted to a direct tax, which was
prohibited by the U.S. Constitution.</font><a id="_ftnref10" title href="http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?control=1597#_ftn10" name="_ftnref10"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">[10]</font></span></a>
<p class="MsoBodyText"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">Article I, Section 8 and
9 declares that direct taxes must be apportioned amongst the states according to
the census. The Sixteenth Amendment was designed to get around this problem.</font>
<p class="MsoBodyText"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica"><strong>1895-1909</strong></font>
<p class="MsoBodyText"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">Aside from an attempt to
float an income tax to pay for the Spanish-American war, the income tax largely
disappeared as a major issue. Nonetheless, the Democratic Party, turning its
back on its Jeffersonian heritage, endorsed a constitutional income tax
amendment in their party platforms of 1896 and 1908.</font><a id="_ftnref11" title href="http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?control=1597#_ftn11" name="_ftnref11"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">[11]</font></span></a>
<p class="MsoBodyText"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">In 1908 Theodore
Roosevelt endorsed both an income tax and an inheritance tax, becoming the first
President of the United States to openly propose that the political power of
government be used to redistribute wealth.</font>
<p class="MsoBodyText"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">Meanwhile, factions
within the Congress cobbled together a compromise amendment and in 1909,
President Taft, known to be favorable to an income tax, if not necessarily an
amendment, stated that although ratification may be difficult, he had"become
convinced that a great majority of the people of this country are in favor of
vesting the National Government with power to levy an income tax."</font><a id="_ftnref12" title href="http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?control=1597#_ftn12" name="_ftnref12"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">[12]</font></span></a>
<p class="MsoBodyText"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">That same year, the
income tax amendment passed overwhelmingly in the Congress and was sent off to
the states. The last state ratified the amendment on February 13, 1913. The
Springfield Republican reported"The Sixteenth Amendment owes its existence
mainly to the West and South, where individual incomes of $5,000 or over are
comparatively few."</font><a id="_ftnref13" title href="http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?control=1597#_ftn13" name="_ftnref13"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">[13]</font></span></a>
<p class="MsoBodyText"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica"><strong>1913</strong></font>
<p class="MsoBodyText"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">Richard E. Byrd, speaker
of the Virginia House of Delegates, predicted,"a hand from Washington will
be stretched out and placed upon every man's business.... Heavy fines
imposed by distant and unfamiliar tribunals will constantly menace the taxpayer.
An army of Federal officials, spies and detectives will descend upon the state.
..."</font><a id="_ftnref14" title href="http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?control=1597#_ftn14" name="_ftnref14"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">[14]</font></span></a>
<font face="Verdana, Helvetica">Pandora had opened the box.</font>
<p class="MsoBodyText"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">The presidential election
of 1912 was contested between three advocates of an income tax. The winner,
Woodrow Wilson, after the ratification of the Sixteenth Amendment, called a
special session of Congress in April 1913, which proceeded to pass an income tax
of 1% on incomes above $3,000 and applied surcharges between 2% and 7% on income
from $20,000 to $500,000. A few years later the Supreme Court kissed and blessed
progressivity.</font>
<p class="MsoBodyText"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">The income tax returned
as the product of an unholy combine between statist intellectuals with visions
of state-sponsored utopias, envious demagogues and the desire by established,
wealthy interests to prevent any competition to their place and to offload
business costs to an expanding regulatory welfare state.</font><a id="_ftnref15" title href="http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?control=1597#_ftn15" name="_ftnref15"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">[15]</font></span></a>
<p class="MsoBodyText"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">At first the revenue
raised by the new income tax was disappointing: only $28 million in 1914. But
then it accelerated. $41 million the next year, when the top rate was 7%, and
nearly $68 million in 1916, when it was raised to 15%.</font><a id="_ftnref16" title href="http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?control=1597#_ftn16" name="_ftnref16"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">[16]</font></span></a>
<font face="Verdana, Helvetica">Eventually more than $1 billion would be pulled
in by the income tax during the whole of World War I, when the rates were raised
to 67% in 1917 and 77% in 1918, and make the hated tax the permanent feature it
has become today.</font><a id="_ftnref17" title href="http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?control=1597#_ftn17" name="_ftnref17"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">[17]</font></span></a>
<p class="MsoBodyText"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">After the war, the top
rate would fall to 73%. In the 1920's it fell to a low of 24% in 1929 but never
again got as low as the pre-war rate of 7%. What would Americans do for a 7%
rate today, one wonders? Hoover and the Republicans raised the rates to 25% in
1930, then to 63% in 1932. Under the corporate statism of the New Deal, rates
leaped to 79% in 1936, 81% in 1940, finally exhausting itself at 94% in
1944-1945.</font>
<p class="MsoBodyText"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">The lowest rates showed
the same appetite, advancing from a 1% rate on incomes below $20,000 in 1915. In
1917, it became 2% up to $2,000, then 6% up to $4,000. By 1941, the lowest rate
was 10% on incomes below $2,000. In 1945, this had jumped to 23%. Today it is 10%
on annual income up to $7,000; 15% on income below $28,000. The top 10% of all
income earners pay 60% of all tax revenue. And the top half pay over 95% of all
revenue raised by the federal income tax.</font><a id="_ftnref18" title href="http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?control=1597#_ftn18" name="_ftnref18"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">[18]</font></span></a>
<font face="Verdana, Helvetica">The average American now works twenty years for
the government simply to pay his taxes.</font><a id="_ftnref19" title href="http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?control=1597#_ftn19" name="_ftnref19"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">[19]</font></span></a>
<p class="MsoBodyText"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">In 1943, the government
began withholding taxes on the advice of Milton Friedman.</font><a id="_ftnref20" title href="http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?control=1597#_ftn20" name="_ftnref20"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">[20]</font></span></a>
<font face="Verdana, Helvetica">After the war ended, this method of stealth
taxation (and tax increases) continued.</font>
<p class="MsoBodyText"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">Not until 1964 were the
top rates lowered, down to 77%. In 1982, the top rate was lowered to 50% and by
the late eighties the rate had been lowered to 28%.</font><a id="_ftnref21" title href="http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?control=1597#_ftn21" name="_ftnref21"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">[21]</font></span></a>
<font face="Verdana, Helvetica">But rates were raised again to 31% under George
H.W. Bush, and again in 1993 to 39.6% under Clinton. George W. Bush apparently
holds as an unshakeable principle that no American should be taxed more than a
third of his income by the federal government. John Kerry, should he become
president, appears likely to suggest the rates be raised back to the Clinton
level.</font>
<p class="MsoBodyText"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">The income tax lived up
to its nature during World War II, devouring American wealth and liberties like
a swarm of locusts, where it became the nearly universal tax we know today. In
1940, fewer than fifteen million tax returns were filed. Just ten years later in
1950, the number would be fifty-three million. In 1939 the income tax raised $1
billion. 16 years later it would raise $19 billion.</font><a id="_ftnref22" title href="http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?control=1597#_ftn22" name="_ftnref22"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">[22]</font></span></a>
<font face="Verdana, Helvetica">The state had found its most fertile harvests—middle
class and working-class taxpayers. As Chief Justice John Marshall remarked,
truly"the power to tax involves the power to destroy."</font>
<p class="MsoBodyText"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">Adjusting for inflation,
in the 81 years between the enactment of the income tax in 1913 to 1994,
government spending increased 13,592%!</font><a id="_ftnref23" title href="http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?control=1597#_ftn23" name="_ftnref23"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">[23]</font></span></a>
<p class="MsoBodyText"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">The great critic of the
income tax, Frank Chodorov wrote"Whichever way you turn this amendment,
you come up with the fact that it gives the government a prior lien on all the
property produced by its subjects."</font><a id="_ftnref24" title href="http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?control=1597#_ftn24" name="_ftnref24"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">[24]</font></span></a>
<font face="Verdana, Helvetica">The United States government"unashamedly
proclaims the doctrine of collectivized wealth.... That which it does
not take is a concession."</font><a id="_ftnref25" title href="http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?control=1597#_ftn25" name="_ftnref25"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">[25]</font></span></a>
<p class="MsoBodyText"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">It was with great honesty
that Frank Chodorov lamented,"America is no longer the America of the
Declaration of Independence."</font><a id="_ftnref26" title href="http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?control=1597#_ftn26" name="_ftnref26"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">[26]</font></span></a>
<font face="Verdana, Helvetica">
<hr align="left" width="33%" SIZE="1">
<p class="MsoBodyText">Adam Young is a freelance Austro-libertarian writer and
reviewer and lives in Canada. Send him <font face="Verdana, Helvetica" color="#3333cc">MAIL</font>,
and see his <font face="Verdana, Helvetica" color="#333399">Mises.org
Articles Archive</font>. Comment on this article on the <font face="Verdana, Helvetica" color="#333399">blog</font>.</font>
<p class="MsoBodyText">
<hr align="left" width="33%" SIZE="1">
<p class="MsoBodyText"><a id="_ftn1" title href="http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?control=1597#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">[1]</font></span></a>
<font face="Verdana, Helvetica"><em>Emancipating Slaves, Enslaving Free Men: A
History of the Civil War</em>, by Jeffrey Rogers Hummel (Open Court, 1996), p.
222.
</font><a id="_ftn2" title href="http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?control=1597#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">[2]</font></span></a>
<font face="Verdana, Helvetica"><em>The Politics and Development of the Federal
Income Tax</em>, by John F. Witte (University of Wisconsin Press, 1985), p. 69.
</font><a id="_ftn3" title href="http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?control=1597#_ftnref3" name="_ftn3"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">[3]</font></span></a>
<font face="Verdana, Helvetica"><em>The United States Federal Income Tax History
from 1861 to 1871</em>, by Harry Edwin Smith (Houghton Mifflin Co., 1941), pp.
54, 56.
</font><a id="_ftn4" title href="http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?control=1597#_ftnref4" name="_ftn4"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">[4]</font></span></a>
<font face="Verdana, Helvetica">Ibid. p. 64.
</font><a id="_ftn5" title href="http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?control=1597#_ftnref5" name="_ftn5"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">[5]</font></span></a>
<font face="Verdana, Helvetica">Ibid. p. 66.
</font><a id="_ftn6" title href="http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?control=1597#_ftnref6" name="_ftn6"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">[6]</font></span></a>
<font face="Verdana, Helvetica">Ibid. pp. 67-68.
</font><a id="_ftn7" title href="http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?control=1597#_ftnref7" name="_ftn7"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">[7]</font></span></a>
<font face="Verdana, Helvetica">Hummel, p. 227.
</font><a id="_ftn8" title href="http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?control=1597#_ftnref8" name="_ftn8"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">[8]</font></span></a>
<font face="Verdana, Helvetica">Smith, pp. 74-75.
</font><a id="_ftn9" title href="http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?control=1597#_ftnref9" name="_ftn9"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">[9]</font></span></a>
<font face="Verdana, Helvetica">"The Sixteenth Amendment: The Historical
Background," by Arthur A. Ekirch, Jr. <em>Cato Journal</em> 1 (Spring
1981), p. 168.
</font><a id="_ftn10" title href="http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?control=1597#_ftnref10" name="_ftn10"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">[10]</font></span></a>
<font face="Verdana, Helvetica">Ibid. pp. 168-69.
</font><a id="_ftn11" title href="http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?control=1597#_ftnref11" name="_ftn11"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">[11]</font></span></a>
<font face="Verdana, Helvetica">Ibid. pp. 171-72.
</font><a id="_ftn12" title href="http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?control=1597#_ftnref12" name="_ftn12"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">[12]</font></span></a>
<font face="Verdana, Helvetica">Ibid. p. 173.
</font><a id="_ftn13" title href="http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?control=1597#_ftnref13" name="_ftn13"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">[13]</font></span></a>
<font face="Verdana, Helvetica">Ibid. p. 178.
</font><a id="_ftn14" title href="http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?control=1597#_ftnref14" name="_ftn14"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">[14]</font></span></a>
<font face="Verdana, Helvetica">Ibid. pp. 177-78.
</font><a id="_ftn15" title href="http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?control=1597#_ftnref15" name="_ftn15"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">[15]</font></span></a>
<font face="Verdana, Helvetica">"The Political Economy of the Origin and
Development of the Federal Income Tax, by Bennett D. Baack and Edward John Ray,
in <em>Emergence of Modern Political Economy</em>, ed. Robert Higgs (AI Press,
1985), pp. 127-31.
</font><a id="_ftn16" title href="http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?control=1597#_ftnref16" name="_ftn16"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">[16]</font></span></a>
<font face="Verdana, Helvetica">Ekirch, p. 182.
</font><a id="_ftn17" title href="http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?control=1597#_ftnref17" name="_ftn17"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">[17]</font></span></a>
<font face="Verdana, Helvetica">Ekirch, p. 182.
</font><a id="_ftn18" title href="http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?control=1597#_ftnref18" name="_ftn18"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">[18]</font></span></a>
<font face="Verdana, Helvetica">The Tax
Foundation</font>
<a id="_ftn19" title href="http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?control=1597#_ftnref19" name="_ftn19"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">[19]</font></span></a>
<font face="Verdana, Helvetica"><em>Lost Rights: The Destruction of American
Liberty</em>, by James Bovard (St. Martin's Griffin, 1995), p. 289.
</font><a id="_ftn20" title href="http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?control=1597#_ftnref20" name="_ftn20"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">[20]</font></span></a>
<font face="Verdana, Helvetica">"Best of Both Worlds" (an interview
with Milton Friedman), Reason, June 1995, p. 33.
</font><a id="_ftn21" title href="http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?control=1597#_ftnref21" name="_ftn21"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">[21]</font></span></a>
<font face="Verdana, Helvetica"><em>Federal Tax Policy</em>, 5th Ed. By Joseph
A. Pechman (Brookings Institution, 1967), p. 313.
</font><a id="_ftn22" title href="http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?control=1597#_ftnref22" name="_ftn22"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">[22]</font></span></a>
<font face="Verdana, Helvetica"><em>The Internal Revenue Service</em>, by John
C. Chrommie (Praeger Publishers, 1970), pp. 21-22.
</font><a id="_ftn23" title href="http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?control=1597#_ftnref23" name="_ftn23"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">[23]</font></span></a>
<font face="Verdana, Helvetica">"Original Intent and the Income Tax,"
by Raymond J. Keating (<em>The Freeman</em>, February 1996), p. 71.
</font><a id="_ftn24" title href="http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?control=1597#_ftnref24" name="_ftn24"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">[24]</font></span></a>
<font face="Verdana, Helvetica"><em>The Income Tax: Root of All Evil</em>, by
Frank Chodorov (Devin-Adair, 1954), p. 12.
</font><a id="_ftn25" title href="http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?control=1597#_ftnref25" name="_ftn25"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">[25]</font></span></a>
<font face="Verdana, Helvetica"><em>One Is a Crowd</em>, by Frank Chodorov (Devin-Adair,
1952), p. 154.
</font><a id="_ftn26" title href="http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?control=1597#_ftnref26" name="_ftn26"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><font face="Verdana, Helvetica">[26]</font></span></a>
<font face="Verdana, Helvetica"><em>The Income Tax: Root of All Evil</em>, by
Frank Chodorov (Devin-Adair, 1954), pp. 6, 8.
</font></font>
gesamter Thread: