-->Sie schreiben hier:
immer den Dingen auf den Grund gehen
aber haben Sie das selbst getan und versucht, das demographische Argument zu zu entkräften, das Koestler zur Stützung seiner Chasaren-Theorie heranzieht? Im Grunde ist mir die Angelegenheit zwar egal, weil meine Haltung gegenüber dem Judentum nicht von dieser Frage abhängt. Aber da Sie hier nochmal darauf insistieren, daß die Theorie von der chasarischen Abstammung der meisten heutigen Juden Humbug sei, will ich nochmal nachhaken.
Die Tatsache, daß es das Chasarenreich gab und daß dessen Oberschicht zum Judentum konvertiert ist, ist wohl unbestritten. Es geht also nur um die Frage, ob die jüdische Bevölkerung Osteuropas von den Chasaren oder von den rheinischen Juden abstammt, die durch den Kreuzzugspöbel vertrieben wurden. Ich beziehe ich mir auf den im Netz verbreiteten Text des Koestler-Buches und werde noch erklären, wie man die Quelle dazu findet. Koestler führt in Kapitel VI seines Buches zuerst aus, daß im 11. Jhdt unter allen deutschen Städten nur Mainz, Worms und Speyer eine erhebliche jüdische Bevölkerung aufwiesen, und zitiert dann die Quellen über die Opferzahlen der Kreuzzugspogrome:
The Hebrew sources agree on 800 victims (by slaughter or suicide) in Worms, and vary between 900 and 1300 for Mayence. Of course there must have been many who preferred baptism to death, and the sources do not indicate the number of survivors; nor can we be sure that they do not exaggerate the number of martyrs. At any rate, Baron concludes from his calculations that"the total Jewish population of either community had hardly exceeded the figures here given for the dead alone".11 So the survivors in Worms or in Mayence could only have numbered a few hundred in each case. Yet these two towns (with Spires as a third) were the only ones important enough to be included in Rabbi Gershom's edict earlier on..Thus we are made to realize that the Jewish community in the German Rhineland was numerically small, even before the First Crusade, and had shrunk to even smaller proportions after having gone through the winepress of the Lord. Yet cast of the Rhine, in central and northern Germany, there were as yet no Jewish communities at all, and none for a long time to come. The traditional conception of Jewish historians that the Crusade of 1096 swept like a broom a mass-migration of German Jews into Poland is simply a legend - or rather an ad hoc hypothesis invented because, as they knew little of Khazar history, they could see no other way to account for the emergence, out of nowhere, of this unprecedented concentration of Jews in Eastern Europe. Yet there is not a single mention in the contemporary sources of any migration, large or small, from the Rhineland further east into Germany, not to mention distant Poland..Thus Simon Dubnov, one of the historians of the older school:"The first crusade which set the Christian masses in motion towards the Asiatic east, drove at the same time the Jewish masses towards the cast of Europe."12 However, a few lines further down he has to admit:"About the circumstances of this emigration movement which was so important to Jewish history we possess no close information."13 Yet we do possess abundant information of what these battered Jewish communities did during the first and subsequent crusades. Some died by their own hands; others tried to offer resistance and were lynched; while those who survived owed their good fortune to the fact that they were given shelter for the duration of the emergency in the fortified castle of the Bishop or Burgrave who, at least theoretically, was responsible for their legal protection. Frequently this measure was not enough to prevent a massacre; but the survivors, once the crusading hordes had passed, invariably returned to their ransacked homes and synagogues to make a fresh start..We find this pattern repeatedly in chronicles: in Treves, in Metz, and many other places. By the time of the second and later crusades, it had become almost a routine:"At the beginning of the agitation for a new crusade many Jews of Mayence, Worms, Spires, Strasbourg, Wrzburg and other cities, escaped to neighbouring castles, leaving their books and precious possessions in the custody of friendly burghers."14 One of the main sources is the Book of Remembrance by Ephraim bar Jacob, who himself, at the age of thirteen, had been among the refugees from Cologne in the castle of Wolkenburg.15 Solomon bar Simon reports that during the second crusade the survivors of the Mayence Jews found protection in Spires, then returned to their native city and built a new synagogue.16 This is the leitmotif of the Chronicles; to repeat it once more, there is not a word about Jewish communities emigrating toward eastern Germany, which, in the words of Mieses,17 was still Judenrein - clean of Jews - and was to remain so for several centuries.
Koestler geht dann auf die Verfolgung der Juden in der Zeit des Schwarzen Todes ein, als sich dasselbe Muster wiederholt hat:
And, just as in the case of the crusades, there is not a shred of evidence for this imaginary exodus. On the contrary, the indications are that the Jews' only hope of survival on this, as on that earlier occasions, was to stick together and seek shelter in some fortified place or less hostile surroundings in the vicinity. There is only one case of an emigration in the Black Death period mentioned by Mieses: Jews from Spires took refuge from persecution in Heidelberg - about ten miles away..After the virtual extermination of the old Jewish communities in France and Germany in the wake of the Black Death, Western Europe remained Judenrein for a couple of centuries, with only a few enclaves vegetating on - except in Spain. It was an entirely different stock of Jews who founded the modern communities of England, France and Holland in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries - the Sephardim (Spanish Jews), forced to flee from Spain where they had been resident for more than a millennium. Their history - and the history of modern European Jewry - lies outside the scope of this book..We may safely conclude that the traditional idea of a mass-exodus of Western Jewry from the Rhineland to Poland all across Germany - a hostile, Jewless glacis - is historically untenable.
Selbst wenn man annimmt, daß Koestler übertreibt, ist es doch plausibel, daß die jüdische Oberschicht des Großreiches der Chasaren die Zerschlagung ihres Staates wenigstens teilweise überlebt hat und daß diese überlebenden Chasaren gegenüber den vielleicht allenfalls einige hundert oder wenige tausend Flüchtlingen aus dem Rheinland (falls es die überhaupt gegeben hat) die zahlenmäßig bedeutendere Komponente des Ostjudentumes darstellen.
Koestler versucht in Kapitel VII seines Buches auch, das linguistische Argument gegen die Abstammung der Ostjuden von den Chasaren zu entkräften. Seiner Ansicht nach enthält das Jiddische keine speziell im Moselgebiet verbreiteten Lehnworte aus dem Deutschen (wie Sie es behauptet haben), sondern alles scheint auf eine Herkunft aus dem Bayrisch-Ã-sterreichischen Raum zu sprechen:
Further evidence against the supposedly Franco-Rhenish origin of Eastern Jewry is provided by the structure of Yiddish, the popular language of the Jewish masses, spoken by millions before the holocaust, and still surviving among traditionalist minorities in the Soviet Union and the United States..Yiddish is a curious amalgam of Hebrew, mediaeval German, Slavonic and other elements, written in Hebrew characters. Now that it is dying out, it has become a subject of much academic research in the United States and Israel, but until well into the twentieth century it was considered by Western linguists as merely an odd jargon, hardly worth serious study. As H. Smith remarked:"L+ittle attention has been paid to Yiddish by scholars. Apart from a few articles in periodicals, the first really scientific study of the language was Mieses's Historical Grammar published in 1924. It is significant that the latest edition of the standard historical grammar of German, which treats German from the point of view of its dialects, dismisses Yiddish in twelve lines."6.At first glance the prevalence of German loanwords in Yiddish seems to contradict our main thesis on the origins of Eastern Jewry; we shall see presently that the opposite is true, but the argument involves several steps. The first is to inquire what particular kind of regional German dialect went into the Yiddish vocabulary. Nobody before Mieses seems to have paid serious attention to this question; it is to his lasting merit to have done so, and to have come up with a conclusive answer. Based on the study of the vocabulary, phonetics and syntax of Yiddish as compared with the main German dialects in the Middle Ages, he concludes:
[i]
No linguistic components derived from the parts of Germany bordering on France are found in the Yiddish language. Not a single word from the entire list of specifically Moselle-Franconian origin compiled by J. A. Ballas (Beitrge zur Kunntnis der Trierischen Volkssprache, 1903, 28ff.) has found its way into the Yiddish vocabulary. Even the more central regions of Western Germany, around Frankfurt, have not contributed to the Yiddish language....7 Insofar as the origins of Yiddish are concerned, Western Germany can be written off....8 Could it be that the generally accepted view, according to which the German Jews once upon a time immigrated from France across the Rhine, is misconceived? The history of the German Jews, of Ashkenazi*[For"Ashkenazi" see below, VIII, I] Jewry, must be revised. The errors of history are often rectified by linguistic research. The conventional view of the erstwhile immigration of Ashkenazi Jews from France belongs to the category of historic errors which are awaiting correction.9
He then quotes, among other examples of historic fallacies, the case of the Gypsies, who were regarded as an offshoot from Egypt,"until linguistics showed that they come from India".10.Having disposed of the alleged Western origin of the Germanic element in Yiddish, Mieses went on to show that the dominant influence in it are the so-called"East-Middle German" dialects which were spoken in the Alpine regions of Austria and Bavaria roughly up to the fifteenth century. In other words, the German component which went into the hybrid Jewish language originated in the eastern regions of Germany, adjacent to the Slavonic belt of Eastern Europe..Thus the evidence from linguistics supports the historical record in refuting the misconception of the Franco-Rhenish origins of Eastern Jewry.
[/i]
Die von Koestler zitierten Mieses-Werke sind
Mieses, M., Die Entstehungsuhrsache der jüdischen Dialekte (Berlin-Wien, 1915).
Mieses, M., Die Jiddische Sprache (Berlin-Wien, 1924).
Die Verbreitung alpendeutscher Dialekte unter Chasarischen Juden führt Koestler auf die Zeit der Herrschaft der Ungarn zurück. Ein Teil der Ungarn ist nämlich anscheinend ebenfalls Chasarischer Abstammung:
For more than half a century - up to AD 955 - Austria, as far west as the river Enns, was under Hungarian domination. The Magyars had arrived in their new country in 896, together with the Kabar-Khazar tribes who were influential in the nation. The Hungarians at the time were not yet converted to Christianity (that happened only a century later, AD 1000) and the only monotheistic religion familiar to them was Khazar Judaism. There may have been one or more tribal chieftains among them who practised a Judaism of sorts - we remember the Byzantine chronicler, John Cinnamus, mentioning Jewish troops fighting in the Hungarian army.*[See above, V, 2.]
Nun zur Frage nach den Spuren im Brauchtum, die die Chasaren hinterlassen haben. Sie führen dazu das Beispiel der Samariter an, die es heute noch gibt. Auf der anderen Seite ist die Zahl der Samariter (vielleicht einige hundert) heute nicht groß, verglichen mit der römischen Kaiserzeit. Ihre Zahl ist vielleicht vergleichbar mit der Zahl der Sprecher des Karaimischen, einer unter osteuropäischen Juden gesprochenen Turksprache. Man muß dazu bedenken, daß die Samariter sich wahrscheinlich vollständig durch die Einkünfte aus dem Tourismus-Geschäft ernähren können, während niemend den Karäern Geld dafür gibt, daß sie ihre dem Türkischen verwandte Sprache pflegen. Daß die Karäer ihre Sprache relativ lange behalten haben, liegt wohl daran, daß es sich um eine relativ kleine und isolierte Sekte handelt. Auf alle Fälle zeugen das Karaimische und das Krimtschakische von der Konversion mancher Turkvölker zum Judentum, und die Zahl der Sprecher dieser Sprachen ist heute in etwa vergleichbar mit der Zahl der Samariter.
Was Spuren des Brauchtumes generell betrifft, so glaubt Koestler durchaus, chasarische Spuren im Brauchtum des Ostjudentums ausmachen zu können:
However, the transformation of Khazar Jewry into Polish Jewry did not entail any brutal break with the past, or loss of identity. It was a gradual, organic process of change, which - as Poliak has convincingly shown - preserved some vital traditions of Khazar communal life in their new country. This was mainly achieved through the emergence of a social structure, or way of life, found nowhere else in the world Diaspora: the Jewish small town, in Hebrew ayarah, in Yiddish shtetl, in Polish miastecko. All three designations are diminutives, which, however, do not necessarily refer to smallness in size (some were quite big small-towns) but to the limited rights of municipal selfgovernment they enjoyed..The shtetl should not be confused with the ghetto. The latter consisted of a street or quarter in which Jews were compelled to live within the confines of a Gentile town. It was, from the second half of the sixteenth century onward, the universal habitat of Jews everywhere in the Christian, and most of the Muslim, world. The ghetto was surrounded by walls, with gates that were locked at night. It gave rise to claustrophobia and mental inbreeding, but also to a sense of relative security in times of trouble. As it could not expand in size, the houses were tall and narrow-chested, and permanent overcrowding created deplorable sanitary conditions. It took great spiritual strength for people living in such circumstances to keep their self-respect. Not all of them did..The shtetl, on the other hand, was a quite different proposition - a type of settlement which, as already said, existed only in Poland-Lithuania and nowhere else in the world. It was a self-contained country town with an exclusively or predominantly Jewish population. The shtetl's origins probably date back to the thirteenth century, and may represent the missing link, as it were, between the market towns of Khazaria and the Jewish settlements in Poland..The economic and social function of these semi-rural, semiurban agglomerations seems to have been similar in both countries. In Khazaria, as later in Poland, they provided a network of trading posts or market towns which mediated between the needs of the big towns and the countryside. They had regular fairs at which sheep and cattle, alongside the goods manufactured in the towns and the products of the rural cottage industries were sold or bartered; at the same time they were the centres where artisans plied their crafts, from wheelwrights to blacksmiths, silversmiths, tailors, Kosher butchers, millers, bakers and candlestick-makers. There were also letter-writers for the illiterate, synagogues for the faithful, inns for travellers, and a heder - Hebrew for"room", which served as a school. There were itinerant story-tellers and folk bards (some of their names, such as Velvel Zbarzher, have been preserved)25 travelling from shtetl to shtetl in Poland - and no doubt earlier on in Khazaria, if one is to judge by the survival of story-tellers among Oriental people to our day..Some particular trades became virtually a Jewish monopoly in Poland. One was dealing in timber - which reminds one that timber was the chief building material and an important export in Khazaria; another was transport."The dense net of shtetls," writes Poliak,26"made it possible to distribute manufactured goods over the whole country by means of the superbly built Jewish type of horse cart. The preponderance of this kind of transport, especially in the east of the country, was so marked amounting to a virtual monopoly - that the Hebrew word for carter, ba'al agalah*[Literally"master of the cart".] was incorporated into the Russian language as balagula. Only the development of the railway in the second half of the nineteenth century led to a decline in this trade.".Now this specialization in coach-building and cartering could certainly not have developed in the closed ghettoes of Western Jewry; it unmistakably points to a Khazar origin. The people of the ghettoes were sedentary; while the Khazars, like other semi-nomadic people, used horse- or ox-drawn carts to transport their tents, goods and chattel - including royal tents the size of a circus, fit to accommodate several hundred people. They certainly had the know-how to negotiate the roughest tracks in their new country..Other specifically Jewish occupations were inn-keeping, the running of flour mills and trading in furs - none of them found in the ghettoes of Western Europe..Such, in broad outlines, was the structure of the Jewish shtetl in Poland. Some of its features could be found in old market towns in any country; others show a more specific affinity with what we know - little though it is - about the townships of Khazaria, which were probably the prototypes of the Polish shtetl..To these specific features should be added the"pagoda-style" of the oldest surviving wooden shtetl synagogues dating from the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, which is totally different from both the native style of architecture and from the building style adopted by Western Jews and replicated later on in the ghettoes of Poland. The interior decoration of the oldest shtetl synagogues is also quite different from the style of the Western ghetto; the walls of the shtetl synagogue were covered with Moorish arabesques, and with animal figures characteristic of the Persian influence found in Magyar-Khazar artefacts (I, 13) and in the decorative style brought to Poland by Armenian immigrants.27.The traditional garb of Polish Jewry is also of unmistakably Eastern origin. The typical long silk kaftan may have been an imitation of the coat worn by the Polish nobility, which itself was copied from the outfit of the Mongols in the Golden Horde - fashions travel across political divisions; but we know that kaftans were worn long before that by the nomads of the steppes. The skull-cap (yarmolka) is worn to this day by orthodox Jews - and by the Uzbeks and other Turkish people in the Soviet Union. On top of the skull-cap men wore the streimel, an elaborate round hat rimmed with fox-fur, which the Khazars copied from the Khasaks - or vice versa. As already mentioned, the trade in fox and sable furs, which had been flourishing in Khazaria, became another virtual Jewish monopoly in Poland. As for the women, they wore, until the middle of the nineteenth century, a tall white turban, which was an exact copy of the Jauluk worn by Khasak and Turkmen women.28 (Nowadays orthodox Jewesses have to wear instead of a turban a wig made of their own hair, which is shaved off when they get married.)
Sicher ist es unglaubwürdig, daß sich gar keine Lehworte chasarischen Ursprungs im Jiddischen finden sollen. Dazu müßte man die Sprache und die Etymologi genauer kennen. Können Sie Jiddisch? Auf jeden Fall sollte man Koestlers Theorie (die freilich viel älter ist, wie er ja selber schreibt) nicht so leichthin als unseriös verwerfen, wie Sie es tun.
Das Koestler-Buch ist, soweit mir bekannt, nicht indiziert, aber die von mir benutzte Quelle im Netz könnte vielleicht sehr wohl die eine oder andere Petze auf den Plan rufen. Deshalb möcht ich keinen Weiser darauf angeben. Zur Not versuche man eine google-Suche mit einigen selteneren Worten (etwa: yarmolka streimel Jauluk"Velvel Zbarzher") aus dem lezten längeren Zitat, das sich auf Kapitel 5 bezog.
Schönes Wochenende wünscht Ihnen
JeFra
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